Manuscripts · Texts · Relics

The Vault

Some things in the history of the sacred are not traditions but objects: a book in an unknown script, a library sealed in desert caves, a tablet that exists only as a text, a cloth or a spear claimed to have touched the divine. The Vault gathers them.

The Vault is a showcase, not a separate library. Every object here also has its place in the main archive: it is filed below under its age, it appears on that age’s page, and it is listed on the chapter of each tradition it belongs to. The chapters tell the story; the Vault lets you study the object itself.

Every entry holds these objects to the same standard as the rest of the archive. It separates what the physical evidence shows (materials, dating, ownership, testing) from what has been claimed, and it ends with the same three-part honesty section: what is well supported, what is not, and what is genuinely open. Where the holding institution publishes its scans openly, the entry has a study viewer. You can magnify any page, enhance faded ink, cut out a region at full resolution, and copy a study packet with image links and scrutiny rules for your own AI or human analysis. The images always load from the institution itself and are never copied here. Where images are copyrighted, the entry links to the official viewer instead.

Attempts at decipherment and translation are labelled as attempts. A reading counts only when it holds up on text it was not built from.

Era I Prehistory before c. 3500 BCE

Era II The Bronze Age c. 3300 – 1200 BCE

V34 · Texts & Tablets

The Pyramid Texts of Unas

In place: the Pyramid of Unas, Saqqara, Egypt · Carved c. 2350 BCE (end of the 5th Dynasty)

The oldest large body of religious writing in the world: 283 spells carved and painted blue on the walls of a king's burial chambers under a ceiling of stars. They were meant for no living reader, and were found in 1881.…

V56 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Phaistos Disc

Heraklion Archaeological Museum, Crete · Usually c. 1850–1600 BCE (Middle Minoan); the dating and even its authenticity have been questioned

A fired clay disc about 16 cm across, found in the Minoan palace of Phaistos in 1908, with 45 different signs pressed into it by stamps in a spiral on both sides: printing, in a sense, three thousand years early. It is…

V45 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Nebra Sky Disc

State Museum of Prehistory, Halle (Saale), Germany · Buried c. 1600 BCE (Early Bronze Age); a later date was proposed in 2020 and rejected by most specialists

A bronze disc 30 cm across with a gold sun or full moon, a crescent and 32 stars, among them a cluster read as the Pleiades. It was dug up by looters in 1999, recovered in a Swiss police sting in 2002, and altered at…

V20 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Papyrus of Ani

British Museum, London (EA 10470) · c. 1250 BCE (19th Dynasty)

A 24-metre Book of the Dead made for the scribe Ani at Thebes. Its judgment scene, the heart weighed against the feather of Ma'at before the Devourer, is the most famous image of the afterlife from the ancient world.…

V43 · Texts & Tablets

The Merneptah Stele

Egyptian Museum, Cairo (JE 31408) · c. 1208 BCE

A pharaoh's granite hymn of victory, found by Flinders Petrie in 1896. Of its 28 lines, one names Israel, about 3,200 years ago, the earliest certain mention of Israel anywhere. The hieroglyphs say something precise…

Era III The Early Iron Age c. 1200 – 550 BCE

V55 · Texts & Tablets

The Oracle Bones of Anyang

Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica (Taipei); Institute of Archaeology and museums in China; collections worldwide · c. 1250–1050 BCE (late Shang)

Turtle shells and cattle shoulder-blades that Shang kings had cracked in fire to put questions to their ancestors, then had the questions and answers carved beside the cracks. Sold as 'dragon bones' for medicine until…

V07 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Ark of the Covenant

No verified object; the Ethiopian Orthodox Church holds it is kept at Aksum · Last mentioned before 586 BCE (2 Chronicles 35:3)

The most precisely described object in the Bible, measured to the half-cubit, and one found nowhere. What the texts say it was and did, the four traditions of its fate (Babylon, Mount Nebo, beneath the Temple, Aksum)…

V86 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Berlin Gold Hat

Neues Museum (Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte), Berlin · Late Bronze Age, c. 1000–800 BCE; bought 1996, find-spot unknown

A 74.5 cm cone of paper-thin gold, covered with stamped circles and crescents, one of four 'Schifferstadt-type' gold hats. Wilfried Menghin read its ornament as a lunisolar calendar; the reading is contested, and the…

V22 · Texts & Tablets

The Mesha Stele

Musée du Louvre, Paris (AO 5066) · c. 840 BCE

A Moabite king's victory stone, smashed by fire and cold water in 1869 and rebuilt from a paper squeeze. It tells the story of 2 Kings 3 from the other side and carries the earliest certain mention of YHWH outside the…

V23 · Texts & Tablets

The Tel Dan Stele

The Israel Museum, Jerusalem · Late 9th century BCE

Three basalt fragments of an Aramaean king's boast, dug up in 1993–94, naming a king of Israel and bytdwd, the 'House of David'. The first mention of David outside the Bible, what it proves and what it doesn't.

V12 · Texts & Tablets

The Ketef Hinnom Silver Scrolls

The Israel Museum, Jerusalem · Late 7th – early 6th century BCE (most scholars)

Two tiny silver amulets from a Jerusalem tomb, excavated in 1979 and unrolled over three years, carrying the Priestly Blessing (‘May YHWH bless you and keep you’). They are about four centuries older than the Dead Sea…

Era IV The Axial Age c. 800 BCE – 200 CE

V52 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Ishtar Gate

Reconstructed in the Pergamonmuseum, Berlin; panels in other museums; foundations in place at Babylon · c. 575 BCE (reign of Nebuchadnezzar II)

Babylon's northern gate, faced with glazed blue bricks and rows of bulls and dragons, the beasts of the storm god and of Marduk. Through it ran the Processional Way of the New Year festival. Excavated by Robert…

V35 · Texts & Tablets

The Cyrus Cylinder

British Museum, London (BM 90920) · After 539 BCE

A clay barrel inscribed in Babylonian cuneiform after Cyrus of Persia took Babylon. It praises Cyrus as Marduk's chosen king and records the return of gods and peoples to their homes. It is often called the first charter…

V54 · Texts & Tablets

The Behistun Inscription

In place: Mount Bisotun, Kermanshah Province, Iran (UNESCO World Heritage Site) · c. 520 BCE

Darius the Great's account of how he seized the Persian throne, carved about 60 metres up a cliff in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian, beneath a relief of the king and the winged symbol of Ahuramazda. Copied at great…

V39 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Derveni Papyrus

Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki · Roll c. 340–320 BCE; the text composed c. 400 BCE

A papyrus roll half-burned on a funeral pyre near Thessaloniki, the oldest surviving book in Europe. It is a philosopher's allegorical commentary on a secret Orphic poem about the birth of the gods, which opens by…

V46 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Piprahwa Relics

Indian Museum, Kolkata; National Museum, New Delhi; gems returned to India in 2025 · Stupa deposit c. 3rd–2nd century BCE or earlier (debated)

Bone fragments, a soapstone urn and some 1,800 gems dug from a stupa in 1898 by a British estate manager. The urn's inscription says the shrine holds relics of the Buddha, or of the Buddha's kinsmen, depending on how it…

V49 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Book of Enoch

Complete text in Ge'ez manuscripts (Ethiopia and European libraries); Aramaic fragments from Qumran (Israel Antiquities Authority) · Written 3rd century BCE–1st century CE; Qumran fragments c. 200 BCE onwards; Ge'ez manuscripts from the 14th–15th century

The book of the Watchers, the fallen angels who taught forbidden arts, and of Enoch's journeys through the heavens. Quoted in the New Testament's Letter of Jude, dropped by most churches, and preserved whole only in…

V53 · Texts & Tablets

The Rosetta Stone

British Museum, London (EA 24) · 196 BCE

A priestly decree honouring the boy-king Ptolemy V, carved in hieroglyphs, Demotic and Greek. Found by French soldiers in 1799, taken by the British in 1801, and used by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion to…

V81 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Mawangdui Silk Texts

Hunan Museum, Changsha · Buried in Tomb 3, Mawangdui, in 168 BCE; excavated 1973

Silk manuscripts from a Han tomb, including two copies of the Laozi (Daodejing), then the oldest known. They put the De section before the Dao section and write heng, 'constant', where later editions avoid an emperor's…

V48 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Great Isaiah Scroll

The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Shrine of the Book), 1QIsaᵃ · c. 150–100 BCE (palaeography); radiocarbon ranges into the 4th–2nd centuries BCE

The only complete book of the Hebrew Bible among the Dead Sea Scrolls: all 66 chapters of Isaiah in 54 columns on a scroll 7.34 metres long, copied about a thousand years before the oldest complete medieval Hebrew…

V02 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Dead Sea Scrolls

Israel Antiquities Authority & The Israel Museum, Jerusalem · c. 3rd century BCE – 1st century CE

Some 900–1,000 manuscripts from eleven caves near Qumran — the oldest copies of the Hebrew Bible, lost scriptures like Enoch and Jubilees, a sect's rules and war-liturgy, cryptic alphabets, a treasure list on copper —…

V37 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Gundestrup Cauldron

National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen · Made c. 150 BCE–1st century CE; found 1891

Nine kilograms of gilded silver, taken apart and laid in a Danish bog. Its plates show an antlered figure holding a torc and a serpent, a giant dipping a man into a vat, and a bull sacrifice. Probably made far to the…

V16 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The James Ossuary

Returned to its private owner after a criminal trial · Box: 1st century BCE – 1st century CE type; inscription disputed

A first-century bone box inscribed 'James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus'. It was declared a forgery by the Israel Antiquities Authority, and its owner was acquitted after an eight-year trial that proved nothing either…

V44 · Texts & Tablets

The Pilate Stone

The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (a replica stands at Caesarea) · c. 26–36 CE

A broken limestone block from Caesarea, reused as a step in the Roman theatre, which names Pontius Pilate as prefect of Judaea. Found in 1961, it is the only inscription from Pilate's lifetime that names him, and it…

V10 · Texts & Tablets

The Copper Scroll

The Jordan Museum, Amman · 1st century CE (debated); found 1952, Qumran Cave 3

A Dead Sea Scroll punched into copper: 64 hiding places of silver and gold, sawn into 23 strips to be read, tagged with seven unexplained Greek letter-groups, and never once found.

Era V Late Antiquity c. 200 – 800 CE

V40 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Gospel of Judas (Codex Tchacos)

Coptic Museum, Cairo · Codex radiocarbon-dated 220–340 CE; the Greek original before c. 180 CE

A Gnostic gospel that the church father Irenaeus denounced around 180 and that was then lost for 1,700 years. It surfaced in a Coptic papyrus codex dug up in Middle Egypt, which rotted for years in a New York bank vault.…

V18 · Manuscripts & Codices

Codex Sinaiticus

British Library, Leipzig University Library, St Catherine's Monastery, National Library of Russia · c. 330–360 CE

The oldest complete New Testament, in a fourth-century Greek Bible now split among four libraries: London, Leipzig, Sinai and St Petersburg. It ends Mark at 16:8, includes Barnabas and Hermas, and still carries the…

V08 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Nag Hammadi Codices

Coptic Museum, Cairo · Bound after the 340s CE (dated cartonnage); texts older

Thirteen leather-bound papyrus books found in a sealed jar in 1945: the Gospel of Thomas, Sethian and Valentinian scriptures, Hermetic tractates, even a scrap of Plato. What the library is, what it isn't, and who may…

V27 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Sacred Tooth Relic

Sri Dalada Maligawa (Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic), Kandy · In Sri Lanka since the 4th century CE (tradition)

The Buddha's tooth, smuggled to Sri Lanka in a princess's hair according to the chronicle, carried in procession by elephants each year. For a thousand years it was the proof of a king's right to rule. The Portuguese…

V84 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Hinton St Mary Mosaic

British Museum, London (central medallion on display) · 4th century CE; found 1963

A Roman mosaic floor from Dorset whose central roundel shows a man before a Chi-Rho, flanked by pomegranates: probably one of the earliest pictures of Christ, though some read it as Constantine. Another room shows…

V15 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The True Cross

Fragments worldwide: Rome, Jerusalem, Mount Athos, Paris and others · Venerated in Jerusalem by the 380s (Egeria)

Wood venerated as the Cross in fourth-century Jerusalem, where deacons guarded it because a pilgrim once bit off a piece. Helena's discovery legend and Eusebius's silence, Calvin's 'shipload' and the 1870 attempt to…

V80 · Texts & Tablets

The Sefer Yetzirah

Known from medieval manuscripts in three recensions · Date disputed: late antiquity to the early Islamic period; commented on by the 10th century

A very short Hebrew book describing creation through 'thirty-two wondrous paths': ten sefirot and the twenty-two letters, divided into three mothers, seven doubles and twelve simples and combined in 231 gates. Its date…

V50 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Vienna Dioscurides

Austrian National Library, Vienna (Cod. med. gr. 1) · c. 512 CE, Constantinople

A great illustrated herbal made in Constantinople around 512 for the princess Anicia Juliana, with hundreds of full-page paintings of plants. It passed through Byzantine, Arab, Jewish and Ottoman hands before an…

V57 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Holy Mandylion

Claimed by the Holy Face of Genoa (San Bartolomeo degli Armeni) and the Mandylion of the Vatican; the original's fate is unknown · Legend from the 4th century; image attested at Edessa from the 6th; in Constantinople 944–1204

The Image of Edessa: a cloth said to bear Christ's face, not made by human hands, sent to King Abgar of Edessa. The first of the 'true images', carried in triumph to Constantinople in 944 and lost from view after 1204.…

V28 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Birmingham Qur'an Manuscript

Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham (Mingana Islamic Arabic 1572a) · Parchment radiocarbon-dated 568–645 CE (95.4% probability)

Two parchment leaves in Hijazi script, recognised in 2015 inside a later manuscript and radiocarbon-dated to 568–645 CE. They belong with sixteen leaves in Paris. What a date for the animal's death can and cannot say…

V67 · Texts & Tablets

The Aramaic Incantation Bowls

About 2,000 or more in museums and private collections (Penn Museum, British Museum, Schøyen Collection and others) · c. 5th–7th century CE, Sasanian Mesopotamia

Clay bowls written with spells in a spiral, sometimes around a drawing of a chained demon, and buried upside down under houses to trap evil. Made for Jewish, Christian, Mandaean and pagan clients in Babylonia, they are…

V29 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Sana'a Palimpsest

Dar al-Makhtutat, Sana'a (DAM 01-27.1); four detached leaves in private and institutional hands · Lower text: one detached leaf radiocarbon-dated 578–669 CE (95%)

A Qur'an codex written over an erased older Qur'an. Found in 1972 in the roof of the Great Mosque of Sana'a. The upper text follows the standard text; the lower text has different readings and a different order of suras.…

V24 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Sudarium of Oviedo

Cámara Santa, Oviedo Cathedral, Spain · Documented 1075; radiocarbon c. 7th century CE

A stained linen face-cloth, venerated as the sudarium of John 20:7 and shown three times a year. Documented from the opening of the Arca Santa in 1075, radiocarbon-dated to around the seventh century, and claimed to…

V05 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Holy Lance (“Spear of Destiny”)

Vienna (Imperial Treasury), Rome (St Peter's), Etchmiadzin (Armenia); copy in Kraków · Vienna lance: early medieval (c. 7th–8th century)

One Gospel sentence, four rival spearheads, and a 1970s occult myth. The Habsburg lance's gold sleeve reads LANCEA ET CLAVVS DOMINI, but metallurgy dates the blade centuries after the Crucifixion, and the 'Spear of…

V65 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Staff God of Tiwanaku

In place: Tiwanaku, near Lake Titicaca, Bolivia (UNESCO World Heritage Site) · Tiwanaku flourished c. 500–1000 CE; the gateway's exact date is uncertain

A monolithic gateway of andesite at Tiwanaku, carved with a frontal figure holding two staffs, its head ringed with rays, flanked by rows of winged attendants. The figure belongs to a 'Staff God' tradition running…

V42 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Lindisfarne Gospels

British Library, London (Cotton MS Nero D IV) · c. 715–720 CE; Old English gloss added c. 950–970

The four Gospels made on Holy Island in honour of St Cuthbert, probably by one man, Bishop Eadfrith. Two centuries later the priest Aldred wrote a word-by-word Old English translation between the lines, the oldest…

Era VI The Early Medieval c. 800 – 1100 CE

V26 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Black Stone of the Kaaba

Eastern corner of the Kaaba, the Sacred Mosque, Mecca · Venerated in Islam since its beginning; never scientifically examined

The fragments of dark stone in a silver frame that pilgrims salute on every circuit of the Kaaba. Carried off by the Qarmatians in 930 and returned broken in 952. Its place in Islamic practice, and why no one can say…

V70 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Pictish Stones

About 350 carved stones and objects, mostly in north-east Scotland (Aberlemno in place; Meigle Museum; the Museum of Scotland and others) · c. 6th–9th century CE

Standing stones of the Picts of early medieval Scotland, carved with a small set of symbols repeated across the country: crescents crossed by broken rods, double discs, combs and mirrors, and a strange beast no one can…

V03 · Texts & Tablets

The Emerald Tablet

No physical tablet is known — the text survives in Arabic & Latin sources · Earliest datable text c. 750–850 CE (Arabic)

Fourteen lines that became the scripture of European alchemy — 'that which is below is like that which is above.' Traced from the Arabic Book of the Secret of Creation to Newton's own translation, with the Latin and a…

V21 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Book of Kells

Trinity College Dublin (MS 58) · c. 800 CE

The high point of Insular art: the four Gospels in Latin, with a Chi-Rho page where cats watch mice steal a wafer and an otter holds a fish. It was stolen for its jewelled cover in 1007 and found under a sod. The symbols…

V36 · Texts & Tablets

The Rök Runestone

Beside Rök church, Östergötland, Sweden (Ög 136) · Early 9th century CE

A granite slab carrying the longest runic inscription in the world, some 760 runes, raised by a father for his dead son. It is full of riddles and written partly in cipher, and it names Theodoric the Great. No two…

V30 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Diamond Sutra of Dunhuang

British Library, London (Or.8210/P.2) · Printed 11 May 868 CE (dated colophon)

A five-metre scroll printed from woodblocks, found in a sealed cave library on the Silk Road and dated by its maker to 868. It is the oldest complete printed book that carries a date. Its text teaches that all…

V38 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Aleppo Codex

The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Shrine of the Book); Ben-Zvi Institute · c. 930 CE, Tiberias

The 'Crown of Aleppo': the model Hebrew Bible whose vowels and accents were added by the master Masorete Aaron ben Asher, and which Maimonides called the text everyone relied on. Kept for six centuries in Aleppo's great…

V85 · Texts & Tablets

The Picatrix

Arabic, Castilian-derived Latin and vernacular manuscripts in many libraries · Arabic original, al-Andalus, 10th–11th century; Castilian translation 1256–1258

The Ghāyat al-Ḥakīm, 'The Goal of the Sage', an Arabic handbook of astral magic from Muslim Spain, translated for Alfonso X and known in Latin as Picatrix. It teaches how to make talismans at the right celestial moment.…

Era VII The High Medieval c. 1100 – 1500 CE

V25 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Veil of Veronica

St Peter's Basilica, Rome; rival image at Manoppello · Venerated at St Peter's from the 12th century

The 'true image' of Christ's face that drew the crowds of the 1300 Jubilee. A legend not in the Gospels, a name with a false etymology, a relic reported lost in the Sack of Rome yet still shown each year, and a…

V14 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Holy Grail

Claimants in Valencia, Genoa, León and elsewhere · Legend from c. 1190 (Chrétien de Troyes)

The Gospels mention a cup and say nothing of its fate. The Grail was born in French romance around 1190. Valencia's agate cup, Genoa's glass dish and León's onyx chalice, set against the literature that made them sacred…

V31 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Dresden Codex

SLUB Dresden (Saxon State and University Library), Mscr.Dresd.R.310 · Usually dated 11th–14th century; the date is debated

The finest of the four Maya books that survived the Spanish conquest: a folding screen of bark paper, bought in Vienna in 1739 and damaged by water in 1945. Its tables track Venus, predict eclipse seasons, and bind both…

V09 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Codex Gigas (“Devil's Bible”)

National Library of Sweden, Stockholm · Early 13th century, Bohemia

The largest surviving medieval manuscript (92 cm tall, about 75 kg), with a Bible, Josephus, Isidore, medicine, exorcisms, and a full-page devil facing the Heavenly City. Plundered from Prague in 1648 and thrown from a…

V06 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Crown of Thorns

Notre-Dame de Paris (axial chapel, reliquary of 2024) · Documented from 1238 (Paris); earlier history by tradition; never dated

A ring of bundled rushes bound with gold thread, with no thorns left on it, for which Saint Louis paid almost half his annual revenue and built the Sainte-Chapelle. Traced from the Gospel mockery through Constantinople…

V88 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Skull of “Mary Magdalene” at Saint-Maximin

Crypt of the Basilica of Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume, Provence, France · Venerated there since the “discovery” of 1279; the present gilded reliquary is dated MDCCCLX (1860)

A darkened skull in a gilded reliquary of flowing golden hair carried by four angels, venerated as Mary Magdalene's since Charles of Salerno announced her tomb in 1279. The Provence legend has no trace before the…

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V66 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Kebra Nagast

Many Ge'ez manuscripts in Ethiopia and in European libraries (British Library's Magdala collection among them) · Compiled c. 1314–1322 CE; surviving manuscripts mostly later

Ethiopia's 'Glory of the Kings': how the Queen of Sheba visited Solomon, bore his son Menelik, and how Menelik brought the Ark of the Covenant to Aksum. It gave the Solomonic dynasty its legitimacy for 650 years, and it…

V82 · Texts & Tablets

The Bardo Thödol

A treasure text of the Nyingma school, in many Tibetan xylograph and manuscript copies · Revealed by Karma Lingpa (1326–1386); attributed by tradition to Padmasambhava, 8th century

'Liberation through Hearing in the Intermediate State', read aloud to the dying and the dead to guide them through the bardos of dying, of reality and of becoming. Its English title, 'The Tibetan Book of the Dead', dates…

V04 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Shroud of Turin

Chapel of the Shroud, Turin Cathedral — owned by the Holy See since 1983 · Radiocarbon 1260–1390 CE (1988; contested); documented from c. 1354

A 4.4-metre linen bearing the faint negative-like image of a crucified man — documented from the 1350s, radiocarbon-dated to 1260–1390, its image still unexplained. Every test and every challenge, set side by side, with…

V61 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Kojiki: the Shinpukuji Manuscript

Ōsu Kannon (Shinpukuji), Nagoya, Japan · Text completed 712 CE; oldest manuscript copied 1371–1372

The 'Record of Ancient Matters', presented to the Japanese court in 712: the birth of the gods, Izanagi and Izanami, the sun goddess Amaterasu, and the descent of the emperors. Its oldest surviving copy was made by a…

V71 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Stećci: Medieval Tombstones of Bosnia

In place: about 70,000 at some 3,300 sites in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia (28 sites a UNESCO World Heritage Site) · 12th–16th century CE, most from the 14th–15th

Great carved gravestones of medieval Bosnia and its neighbours, shaped as slabs, chests and gabled houses, carved with spirals, crescents, hunts, circle dances and a man with a raised hand. Long called the tombstones of…

V01 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Voynich Manuscript

Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University — MS 408 · Vellum radiocarbon-dated 1404–1438

A fifteenth-century vellum book in an unknown script that no one has been able to read — radiocarbon-dated, its owners traced from Rudolf II's Prague, and every proposed 'solution' tested and found wanting. Study all of…

V62 · Texts & Tablets

The Inca Khipu

About 1,000 or more in museums worldwide (Lima, Berlin, New York, Harvard and elsewhere) · Mostly c. 1400–1600 CE; earlier Wari examples c. 600–1000 CE

Bundles of knotted cords that ran the largest empire of the Americas without an alphabet: census counts, tribute, calendars, and, the Spanish said, histories. The numbers were cracked in 1912. Whether some khipus also…

V63 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Kalpa Sutra Manuscripts

Jain temple libraries (bhandars) in India; museums worldwide (V&A, British Library, others) · Text attributed to Bhadrabahu; illustrated copies mostly 14th–16th century, western India

The Shvetambara Jain scripture of the lives of the Jinas, read aloud each year at Paryushana. From the 14th century it was copied on paper in western India with brilliant miniatures in red, blue and gold, above all the…

V41 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Codex Borgia

Vatican Apostolic Library (Borg.mess.1) · Late 15th or early 16th century, central Mexico

A painted screenfold of deerskin from the Puebla–Tlaxcala region of Mexico, among the very few divinatory books to survive the conquest. It is a manual of the 260-day count, with gods, omens, a Venus almanac and a…

Era VIII The Early Modern c. 1500 – 1800 CE

V78 · Texts & Tablets

The Malleus Maleficarum

Printed at Speyer in 1486 and reprinted many times; copies in many libraries · Written by the Dominican Heinrich Kramer (Institoris), first printed 1486

The 'Hammer of Witches', a Latin handbook on identifying, trying and punishing witches, written by the inquisitor Heinrich Kramer after a failed witch trial at Innsbruck. How much it was actually used in the trials, and…

V83 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Codex Boturini

Biblioteca Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City · Shortly before or after the Spanish conquest; c. 1520s–1540s

The 'Strip of the Pilgrimage', a 5.5-metre amate screenfold drawn in black and never coloured, telling the Mexica migration from Aztlan in footprints, place glyphs and year counts. It breaks off mid-story, during the war…

V13 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Tilma of Guadalupe

Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Mexico City · Devotion attested by 1556; tradition dates the image to 1531

The cloak venerated as Juan Diego's, bearing the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe. It was attacked in 1556 as 'painted by an Indian, Marcos', survived a bomb in 1921, and was studied in infrared in 1979. The Nahuatl…

V51 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Codex Mendoza

Bodleian Library, Oxford (MS. Arch. Selden. A. 1) · c. 1541–1553, Mexico City

Painted by Nahua artists for the first viceroy of New Spain, with Spanish notes: the founding of Tenochtitlan, the tribute of the empire, and an Aztec life from birth to old age. Bound for the emperor Charles V, it was…

V11 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Rohonc Codex

Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest · Paper watermarked 16th century; writing undated

448 small pages in an unknown script of about 200 signs, with crucifixions beside crescents. Given to the Hungarian Academy in 1838, it is suspected as a forger's hoax and proposed as a coded prayer book. Every reading…

V64 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Benin Bronzes

Dispersed since 1897: British Museum, Berlin, and more than 130 other institutions; returns to Nigeria under way since 2022 · Cast c. 13th–19th century; the palace plaques mostly 16th–17th century

Thousands of cast brass plaques, heads and ivory carvings from the royal court of Benin, made for the altars of the Oba's ancestors and for the palace. The British army looted them in 1897 and sold them to museums around…

V79 · Texts & Tablets

The Zohar, First Printings

Copies of the Mantua and Cremona editions in Jewish and national libraries · Printed at Mantua and Cremona, 1558–1560; the Zohar itself first circulated in Castile in the 1280s

Kabbalah's great book was printed for the first time in two rival Italian editions, Mantua in three volumes and Cremona in one folio, over the protests of rabbis who thought secret lore should stay in manuscript. The…

V19 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Book of Soyga

Bodleian Library, Oxford (MS Bodley 908); British Library (Sloane MS 8) · 16th century; owned by John Dee

John Dee's book of magic, ending in 36 grids of letters he could never read. An angel told him only Michael could explain it. Rediscovered in 1994; in 2006 a cryptographer showed the grids are generated from seed words…

V33 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Kartarpur Bir

The Sodhi family, Kartarpur (Jalandhar district), Punjab · Completed 1604 (tradition and colophon evidence)

The volume that Sikh tradition holds is the first Adi Granth, compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604 with Bhai Gurdas as scribe. It was kept by a rival claimant to the Guruship, and scholars have seldom been allowed to see it.…

V32 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Popol Vuh Manuscript

The Newberry Library, Chicago (Ayer MS 1515) · Copied c. 1700–1715 by Francisco Ximénez; the lost K'iche' original c. 1550s

The K'iche' Maya book of creation, the Hero Twins and the lords of Xibalba, which survives only because a Dominican friar in Chichicastenango copied it around 1701, K'iche' beside Spanish. The alphabetic original…

V87 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Diwan Abatur

Bodleian Library, Oxford (Drower Collection, DC 8); Vatican Library (Borgiani Siriaci 175) · The published copy DC 8 is 18th-century; the text is older, date uncertain

A Mandaean illustrated scroll over six metres long that maps the soul's road after death through the maṭarātā, or watch-houses, across the river Hitpun in the ship Shahrat, to Abatur, who weighs it. Published in English…

Era IX The Modern Age c. 1800 – present

V75 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Golden Plates

Not held: Joseph Smith said he returned them to the angel Moroni. The manuscripts of the Book of Mormon are held by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints · Obtained, by Joseph Smith's account, on 22 September 1827

Metal plates engraved in 'reformed Egyptian' that Joseph Smith said an angel led him to in a hill in western New York, and from which he dictated the Book of Mormon, published in 1830. Eleven witnesses signed statements…

V76 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Báb's Star Tablet

British Library, London (Or. 6887), among other star tablets of the Báb · Written between 1844 and 1850, the years of the Báb's mission

A tablet in the Báb's own hand, its lines of Arabic writing laid out as a five-pointed star, the haykal or 'temple', whose points stand for the head, hands and feet of the human body. The Báb, the forerunner of the…

V69 · Texts & Tablets

The Kumulipo

Printed for King Kalākaua in 1889; Queen Liliʻuokalani's English translation published in 1897 · Composed in the 18th century for the chief Kalaninuiamamao; first printed 1889

A Hawaiian creation chant of 2,102 lines in sixteen ages, from the first night and the birth of the coral polyp to the gods and the chiefs. Composed in honour of an 18th-century chief, printed by King Kalākaua in 1889…

V47 · Texts & Tablets

The Kensington Runestone

Runestone Museum, Alexandria, Minnesota · Claims 1362; found 1898; judged a modern creation by runologists

A greywacke slab a Swedish immigrant farmer said he found under the roots of a tree in Minnesota in 1898, telling of Norse explorers killed in 1362. Scholars rejected it within months, and its runes and language point to…

V68 · Relics & Sacred Objects

The Tjurunga of Central Australia

Held by their Arrernte and neighbouring custodians; many collected examples in museums (Strehlow Research Centre, Alice Springs, and elsewhere), with restricted access and returns under way · Kept over many generations; most museum examples collected c. 1890s–1960s

Sacred boards and stones of the Arrernte and their neighbours, which embody ancestral beings of the Dreaming and are seen only by those entitled to see them. Collectors took thousands into museums, and European thinkers…

V77 · Texts & Tablets

The Haitian Vèvè

Drawn anew for each ceremony and effaced during it; recorded in published collections such as Milo Rigaud's Vè-Vè (1974) · A living practice; documented from the 19th and 20th centuries

Designs traced on the temple floor in cornmeal, flour or ash by a Vodou priest or priestess to call a particular lwa, or spirit: a cross and cane for Legba, serpents for Damballa, a heart for Ezili. Each is made to be…

V73 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Book of the Law

The handwritten manuscript survives in private hands; facsimiles have been published since 1938 · Written in Cairo on 8, 9 and 10 April 1904

Sixty-five handwritten pages that Aleister Crowley said were dictated to him in a Cairo hotel in April 1904 by a being called Aiwass, and the scripture of his religion, Thelema: 'Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of…

V72 · Manuscripts & Codices

The Book of Shadows

Gerald Gardner's own manuscripts in private hands; copied by hand by generations of initiates · Begun c. 1946–1949 as 'Ye Bok of ye Art Magical'; revised through the 1950s

The handwritten ritual book of Gerald Gardner's witchcraft, copied by each new initiate, and the founding scripture of Wicca. Gardner presented its rites as those of a surviving ancient witch cult; historians have traced…

V74 · Texts & Tablets

The Satanic Bible

Published by Avon Books, New York, 1969; in print ever since · Published December 1969

Anton LaVey's book of 1969, the founding text of the Church of Satan: an atheist philosophy of self-interest, indulgence and personal responsibility, in which Satan is a symbol, not a being. It borrows heavily from an…

V17 · Manuscripts & Codices

The “Gospel of Jesus's Wife”

A papyrus fragment now recognised as a modern forgery · Papyrus old; writing modern (forgery)

A card-sized Coptic fragment in which Jesus says 'my wife', announced by a Harvard historian in 2012 and exposed by 2016: a text patched together from an online Gospel of Thomas, down to its typo. How a forgery is…

See the methodology for the sourcing standard and the meaning of the pending-review tag.